Distribution

Breeds in two distinct regions: (1) from southern Mississippi west to Texas and New Mexico and south to Mexico; and (2) along the Atlantic coast from North Carolina south to Florida. Winters in southern Florida.

Habitat

Swampy tickets, hedgerows, woodland edges, shrubby areas. Often near human habitation.

Nesting

Deep cup of grass, forbs and leaves.

North American Status

On Audubon WatchList of birds at risk http://www.audubon.org/bird/watch/. Species largely due to declining populations and limited wintering threats on breeding and wintering grounds. The Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) shows a 3.2% annual population decline between 1966-1996 across it range.

Threats

• Primary threat is loss and degradation of breeding habitat due to development of swampy thickets and woodland edges.
• Nest parasitism by Brown-headed and Bronzed Cowbirds.
• Hundreds captured every year as cage birds on tropical wintering grounds.

Conservation Recommendations

Habitat protection and restoration.

Research Needs

• Compare breeding success in both natural and disturbed habitats, in eastern and western breeding regions.
• Population viability modeling to assess levels of productivity, potential source-sink areas, and habitat features associated with reproductive success.
• Analyze affect of cowbird parasitism.